General

Buteo buzzards are mid-sized raptors with broad wings and shortish tail. They typically hunt over open landscapes and mostly eat small mammal and reptilian prey. They spend a lot of time soaring high in the sky with wings raised in a low V, and can also hover. Often they also perch openly on poles and trees. Buteos are generally quite common, and often seen because of their preference for open landscapes. They are distinctive as a group, but their colouration is individually extremely variable, which complicates species identification. Taxonomy and hybridisation are also problematic issues.

Distribution

Breeds from southeastern Europe to Central Asia continuing from the Caspian Sea east to Altai. The wintering range reaches from northeastern Africa, the Near East and Arabia to the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.

Life cycle

Summer breeder, northern populations migratory, while southern ones sedentary. Moult starts during the summer and is finished by late autumn.

General

Difficult to distinguish from some Upland Buzzards and also often from Steppe Buzzards. Large buzzard with a large bill and longish, unfeathered legs. Long neck, tail and wings, often soar with wings in a pronounced V (the smaller species show a more shallow V). These structural characters are important for separation from especially Steppe Buzzard, which may be very similar in colour, but also from other smaller Buteos, but is not of much use in separation from Upland and Rough-legged Buzzards. The colouration is very variable, with many birds having mainly pale brownish underparts with blackish carpal-patches and large dark flank patches joining on the belly, others show a darker brown ground colour and in some birds this ground colour is so dark brown that the underparts are almost uniformly dark, except for the flight-feathers. The dark morph Buteos of all these species are quite similar to each other, and therefore best identified using structural characters.

Adult

Pale birds do not show any pectoral band, because the whole head and breast are pale (most paler-plumaged adult Steppe show a pale pectoral band) while the dark areas on the underbody are concentrated to the area around the belly, with at most faint barring (even pale Steppes show a more uniformly dark body, and more barring). The general appearance of the underwing-covert area is uniformly pale and unbarred (most paler Steppes have darker lesser underwing coverts and some show barring), and the blackish carpal patches are large and prominent (most Steppes have smaller patches). The upperwing coverts are rufous-toned and quite pale (less rufous-toned as well as darker in Steppe). The tail is pale orange basally and darker orange distally with some traces of a narrow dark subterminal band (Steppe has a darker tail with some narrow barring and a more prominent subterminal band). The dark morph is almost identical in colour to dark-morph Steppe Buzzards, and also has a bold, black terminal band on the tail. The outer primaries and the tail are less distinctly barred, especially compared to the secondaries, than in dark morph Steppes.

May also be similar to pale young birds of East Asian Buzzard, see that species.

For separation from Upland Buzzard, see that species.

First-year

AGE:More streaking on the underparts, regularly patterned and uniformly fresh or, later in the season, worn plumage, with the tail narrowly barred. Iris pale grey (sometimes paler than in any juvenile Steppe. Blackish in full adult Long-legged, but may be quite pale in younger adults). Also, from a distance, the uppersides of the secondaries seem quite dark and contrast with paler upperwing-coverts (the latter are less rufous in young birds than in adults), and the primary patch is even larger and more contrasting than in adults.

SPECIES: Separated from the other species more or less as adults are, but the tail is more barred than in adults, with the bars dense but fine, some with barring visible only distally (typically young Steppe Buzzard show more and stronger barring especially close to the tip forming a broader terminal band, but some are quite similar). The upperwing primary patch is larger and more contrasting than in any Steppe.

Subadult

Second feather generation basically as in adult, but with some variable immature traits. The innermost primaries are often replaced during the first months of the 2cy. Later during 2cy, the outermost primaries and often some secondaries are still unmoulted juvenile feathers and the eyes are still pale.

Distribution

Breeds from Altai east and south through Mongolia and south to the Himalaya, some winter more to the south. Not much overlap in range with Long-legged Buzzard but hybridises where the breeding areas meet.

Life cycle

General

Large buzzard with feathered legs, at least 2/3 of the length in a frontal view. Slightly shorter-tailed and broader-winged than Long-legged Buzzard, but there are also shape differences between the age classes in both species, which makes correct assessment more difficult. Larger bill than in the smaller Buteos (Japanese, East Asian and Steppe) is sometimes apparent, and the body is also broad, with perching birds looking almost eagle-like. The plumage varies a lot from very dark to very pale. The plumage of dark birds is similar to other dark-plumaged Buteos (dark morphs of Long-legged, Steppe and Himalayan). The palest birds are almost unmarked below, but always show black fingers, black carpal patches and some dark on the throat, flanks or trousers. Typical for most birds of any age is a large darkish area on the rear body, a broad pale belt over the breast, and darker head and neck (smaller buzzards show a narrower or somewhat mottled pale breast belt). In practice, most identification problems concern Long-legged Buzzard (some individuals may be unidentifiable, with hybrids occurring) as well as East Asian / Himalayan Buzzard.

Adult

The whole plumage may be rufous-tinged (as in many Long-legged), but more often the dark areas are dark brown, not rufous. The head is normally mostly darkish, or shows darkish areas, even in otherwise quite pale birds (vs Long-legged Buzzard, pale individuals, of which normally have a very pale head). Typical patterns include black streaks or blotches on the breast sides, a long moustachial stripe and a gorget of sharp streaks (resembling many East Asian, while Long-legged generally has less patterned head and breast). The upper breast is typically largely pale, sometimes almost white. Darker birds may show only a pale area on the breast against an otherwise dark brown underbody, and still darker individuals have a quite uniform, reddish-brown plumage (quite similar to that of dark Long-legged and Steppe Buzzards). The darkest areas in the plumage are normally the trousers, which are almost invariably blackish and form an oval-shaped dark area close to where the trailing edge of the wing meets the body (unlike in East Asian, and also in Long-legged, which both show less uniformly dark trousers, but some show a pattern resembling typical Upland). The feathered part of the legs are also typically very dark. The flanks are typically dark forming a patch, barred in many (unbarred or less barred in Long-legged, but resembling East Asian). In darker individuals the flank patches join on the belly (in Long-legged they tend to join even in quite pale birds). In flight the dark flank patches often join with the dark trousers. The underwing-coverts may be uniformly pale, but are often generally quite dark because of dark brown patterning, with the lesser coverts the darkest (underwing-coverts more uniform in colour in Long-legged and typically sandy- or reddish-tinged). Whitish upperwing primary patch wide with restricted barring. Typically a dark terminal band to the tail, with the internal barring on the tail more distinct than in Long-legged. The tail may also be almost unmarked, while the darkest individuals show quite distinct barring.

First-year

AGE: like other Buteos: paler eyes, uniform and less strongly marked remiges and rectrices, the latter with narrow, dense barring. The upper tail often looks whitish, with narrow distinct bars. The upper primary patches are particularly contrasting and clear cut.
SPECIES: Separated from other species more or less in the same way as in adults, with body plumage pattern very variable, but head typically darkish, especially throat and upper breast. Variable but often large dark flank patches join on the belly or not, and if not, then forming two dark ovals at the thigh areas, with pale area on the breast/belly. The primary tracts show very large whitish unbarred patches, eye-catching even on the undersides of the wings. Paler eyes than in the small Buteos. (Juvenile pale East Asian Buzzard has mostly pale trousers and less solid oval-shaped flank patches, or a smaller belly patch, more barred remiges, smaller and less distinct primary patch on the upperwing. Structure is also important in separating these two. Juvenile pale Long-legged has less uniformly dark trousers, narrower and more uniform streaking on the breast and generally more extensive rufous fringes on the upperparts, although Upland often also shows some rufous). The tail is typically barred throughout and the bars may be quite distinct (juvenile Long-legged has a somewhat more narrowly and less distinctly barred tail).

Subadult

Feathers acquired in the first moult may not be of wholly mature type, and eyes are somewhat paler than in full adult, but there are no real subadult plumages.

Distribution

Breeds along the Himalayan mountain chain and is resident, or an altitudinal or short-distance migrant. In addition, breeds in the Central Chinese mountains in Sichuan, Qinghai and Gansu. The Chinese breeding populations are in some works included in East Asian Buzzard, sometimes not even with separate subspecific status, but it seems to be better to combine them with Himalayan birds. It seems that Himalayan Buzzard does not normally wander far south on the Indian subcontinent, but it is unclear what its status is in South-East Asia in winter.

General

A subspecies of East Asian Buzzard, in some works treated as a full species, largely because of DNA study results. The taxonomy and nomenclature of this group of birds is unclear and varies a lot from work to work. Himalayan Buzzard has a dark morph which occurs quite frequently, unlike the other subspecies of East Asian Buzzard, but like Upland and Steppe Buzzards.

Adult

Pale-morph Himalayan Buzzards resembles East Asian burmanicus, but is on average paler with a more streaked and less uniform rufous breast. Darker pale-morph individuals are indistinguishable from typical burmanicus.

First-year

Pale first-year Himalayan Buzzards are indistinguishable from the same age burmanicus East Asian Buzzard, but separable from other species the same way as they are. Dark first-year birds are quite similar to dark morph juvenile Steppe Buzzards. They have no rufous tones as many Steppe Buzzards, have on average somewhat broader barring on tail and flight-feathers, and more barred primaries

Distribution

Breeds from Japan to Central Siberia. Winters in Japan, Korea, southern China and SE Asia. Subspecies burmanicus is a long distance migrant, and occurs widely in southern China and South-East Asia in winter. Subspecies japonicus is sedentary or short-distance migrant. Subspecies refectus is here treated in a separate chapter with the name Himalayan Buzzard.

Geographical variation

Taxonomy and nomenclature of these buzzards is complicated, and they are treated variably in the literature, also the names are variable. The following names are used here: the subspecies mostly referred to is the northern Chinese-Siberian breeder burmanicus. The nominate from Japan is paler with many adults superficially resembling a pale young bird of other subspecies, and often identifiable to subspecies. First-years are on average paler but many are indistinguishable from same age burmanicus. Korean birds, including wintering birds, seem to be somewhat intermediate between these two. The mountain subspecies refectus is treated in a separate chapter as Himalayan Buzzard. Some authorities separate mountain birds from northern ones and Japanese birds specifically, but treatment as three subspecies is considered more practical here.

Life cycle

General

Small Buteo. The colouration may resemble Upland Buzzard and it may be difficult to separate from that species. Also difficult to separate from Steppe Buzzard, because of general likeness, and especially because of large variation in both, but they mostly occur in separate areas. Many young individuals are also quite similar in colouration to Long-legged Buzzards of the same age, although this species also usually occurs in separate areas. Often treated as conspecific with Steppe and Common Buzzards. Often also treated conspecific with Himalayan Buzzard, as is the case here, but they have separate accounts. Adults and juveniles are quite different from each other, but otherwise East Asian Buzzard is not as variable as some other Buteos.

Adult

Many individuals have a more or less uniformly coloured rufous head and breast (quite different from Steppe Buzzard), but others are paler with rufous streaking on whitish background on the breast. The belly and flanks have a whitish ground-colour and variable patterning. There is almost always some blackish-brown barring and variable uniform dark brown flank patches, which may join on the mid belly. In some, the patches are browner and extensively barred, but they still are of darker colour than the upper breast and head (generally the same colour in Steppe Buzzard). The vent and undertail-coverts are whitish, but a few show some barring. The lesser underwing-coverts are rufous – of the same colour as the breast, while the rest of the underwing-coverts show rufous spotting on whitish background. There is a variable amount of black on the carpal area, with some birds showing almost uniform black, roundish carpal patches (larger than in Steppe Buzzard). The upperwing-coverts are brown, with paler, slightly reddish edges. The secondaries show very fine barring with blackish tips, but the dark trailing edge of the wing is comparatively narrow (generally broader in adult Steppe Buzzard). The tail may be almost unbarred, but many show fine and uneven barring which may be confined to the distal area, while most individuals show a broader subterminal band. The upper sides of both the tail and wing feathers often show a rufous tinge. The eyes are very dark.

First-year

AGE:Normally easy to age based on the plumage. The general impression of the underparts is pale with a dark belt on the flank-belly area, dark carpal patches and some streaking on underbody and underwing coverts (adults are darker and less streaked, more barred). The extent of dark patterning is individually variable. Darker areas are mid-brown or dark brown, not reddish (adults normally have some reddish brown). Head is mostly pale (more reddish and darker in adults). Most have almost uniform dark patches on the neck sides and continuing down from there, variable dark streaking on breast, no barring anywhere on underbody (adults have variable barring). Dark flank patches often join in the middle and a dark belt is formed (as in adults, but the adult ground colour is darker). Underwing coverts quite pale with sparse darker patterning. The dark trailing edge to the wing is narrow and indistinct. Upperparts are mostly mid-brown with some paler areas on the coverts and often a pale head. The bases to the primaries show a paler background than other flight feathers and are densely barred. The tail is densely barred dark brown. Eyes grey (almost black in adult). The trailing edge of the wing is smooth and even.

SPECIES: Mostly confusable with young Steppe Buzzard, see that account, and young Upland Buzzard, see that account. In addition, the colouration may resemble Long-legged. In addition to structural differences, the bases of the primaries are more barred (less extensively barred in Long-legged), upperwing coverts mid-brown (quite rufous in Long-legged, but some young birds less rufous), the dark trailing edge to the secondaries is generally narrower, the head and upper breast are more patterned (Long-legged tend to have dark brown concentrated to a large patch on the lower flanks and belly) and dark tail bars tend to be broader, about as broad as intervening pale areas (dark bars of Long-legged typically clearly narrower than the pale areas).

First-year comparison

First-year East Asian Buzzard compared to other similar Buteos.

Subadult

The 2nd generation feathers are much as in an adult, but with some variable immature traits, such as spotting on the belly. In 2cy, the outermost primaries and some secondaries are retained unmoulted feathers, with the juvenile secondaries being shorter than the fresh ones (adults also often show flight feathers of different ages, but it is easier to spot the possible juvenile feathers among the secondaries, and this will help with ageing).

Distribution

Steppe Buzzard is the eastern subspecies of Common Buzzard Buteo buteo. Steppe Buzzard, subspecies name vulpinus, breeds from Eastern Europe eastwards to Southern Siberia as well as Altai and Yenisei. It is a long-distance migrant and most winter in tropical Africa, but some on the Indian subcontinent.

Life cycle

General

The colouration is very variable. Size, structure and colouration resemble East Asian Buzzard. Often also resembles Long-legged Buzzard, see the differences, including size and structure, under that species account. Many are not separable from Common Buzzard, see that account. Often confused with European Honey-buzzard, see the account of that species.

Adult

Adult Steppe Buzzards have blackish irises (greyish in first-year). Internal parts of the flight feathers are always pale on the underparts and mid-grey on the upperparts. There is a blackish trailing edge to the wing, blackish fingers and a dark tip to the tail, but body plumage and coverts are extremely variable. The blackish trailing edge is broad: somewhat variable, but about half of a visible feather length on inner and about a third on outer secondaries (narrower in East Asian adults) and internal areas of the outer primaries are almost unbarred (narrowly barred through in East Asian). The tail is variably barred and usually rufous-toned, on some rufous birds the barring may be hard to see from underneath. (East Asian may have an identical tail, which is similarly rufous, and may lack the dark terminal band to the tail. Two common tail patterns of adult Steppe Buzzards are not that common in East Asian / Himalayan: 1 - distinct black subterminal band and otherwise orange tail, paler close to the base 2 - broader subterminal band than in the previous type and distinct narrow internal barring with rufous background, slightly more greyish towards the base. Greyish brown tail with indistinct barring, sometimes irregular, sometimes almost lacking, is typical for adult East Asian, and rare in Steppe. Both species often have a grey tail with narrow internal barring and a broader subterminal band, sometimes with rufous tone on pale parts- Most, but not all Steppe have this rufous tone, while in East Asian it is less common, but still often seen.)

Darker birds have mostly uniform mid-brown or even darker blackish, slightly reddish-toned body and underwing-coverts. Their colouration is almost the same as in dark Long-legged, and other dark Buteos. Dark birds are best identified using structural characters and flight feather patterns. (Dark Himalayan is not reddish-toned, and has typically narrower dark trailing edge, but more distinctly barred internal areas of remiges including the outermost primaries in many. Dark Long-legged has broader and less distinct underwing barring on darker background.)

Paler individuals are either largely rufous (as Long-legged, account of which see) or more greyish-brown (like Common Buzzard, the nominate buteo, account of which see). The head and upper breast are typically reddish-tinged, but also streaked or blotched darker (not nearly uniform as often found in adults of East Asian). Many have dark moustachial stripes (as in East Asian). Head-upper breast normally makes a darker impression and is divided from darker belly-flanks area by narrow and relatively distinct pale belt (East Asian adults also show a similar belt, but it is normally quite patterned and blends in with the similarly patterned centre of the belly). The flanks are the darkest area and this dark patch often continues over the belly. This dark area is mostly darkish rufous in a similar tone to the upper breast (East Asian has a more blackish patch similarly either restricted to the flanks or continuing over the belly). Rufous-coloured Steppes may also show almost uniform rufous body underparts (this does not occur in East Asian), or the rear underparts including the undertail-coverts are uniform rufous behind the paler pale belt (this pattern too does not occur in East Asian, which has more restricted and darker patches and pale undertail-coverts). The general impression of the breast-belly area in most Steppe is not uniformly barred, and if it is barred, this feature is not combined with blackish flank patches (unlike in East Asian). Steppe Buzzard tend to have uniform dark reddish-brown trousers (East Asian tend to have trousers wholly barred brown and whitish). Undertail coverts in most individuals are uniform pale, but quite often strongly barred troughout or in darker birds uniform dark (a majority of East Asian shows pale, unmarked undertail-coverts, but some show restricted barring, only dark morph birds show dark undertail-coverts). The black carpal patch of Steppe is on average more restricted, typically to the greater primary-coverts (while in East Asian there are many blackish feathers among the lesser primary-coverts as well), but the carpal patch may be identical in some cases.

Adult comparison

Steppe Buzzard colouration is very variable. The variation is often divided into grey, fox-red, dark rufous and black forms, but they are not really distinct nor internally uniform categories, but tools for classifying and remembering.

First-year

Dark morph also occurs in first-years. Otherwise somewhat less variable than adults.

AGE:Often quite differently coloured from adults. Eyes distinctly pale (almost uniform dark irides in adults), underparts typically streaked (less streaked, even barred, in adults), uniformly fresh, or later worn, remiges with a grey and often indistinct terminal band. The terminal band may be quite distinct also, very close to some adults, and all are not ageable using this character only. Often easier to age from above. Upperwing greater covers have paler tips (no pale tips in adults) before they wear off, and the uppersides of the secondaries are dark, almost lacking visible banding, contrasting to paler upperwing-coverts (in adults secondaries show paler ground-colour and a comparatively distinct dark terminal band and less or no contrast compared to the coverts).

SPECIES: There are some individuals that resemble East Asian Buzzard, but the majority are relatively different looking. Steppe Buzzards are, as a rule, more reddish-brown (not neutral medium-brown), have a darker and more densely streaked head and breast, more extensively dark-patterned trousers and vent, giving a streaked impression, and in many quite a well-defined pale belt between these areas, except in the individuals at the darker end of the variation. The overall impression of the underparts is more evenly patterned (not a pale head and throat and breast, uniform blackish belly patch being the darkest area and pale vent and undertail-coverts as in East Asian. Some Steppe have a relatively well-marked belly patch, but it is still less clear-cut and browner than the typically blackish patch of the East Asian). The underwing-coverts are more patterned, quite similarly patterned and coloured as the carpal-patch area with black only as a crescent (less patterning in East Asian, with the colour and pattern contrast to the mostly black carpal area evident). The dark trailing edge to the wing is variable but generally more distinct and broader, the bases of the outer primaries are unbarred (indistinctly barred in Eastern), the base colour of the tail is somewhat reddish with narrow internal dark bars (in Eastern juvenile greyish base colour and broad darker bands, as broad or even broader than the intervening paler areas). On average, Steppe has less contrast above, with darker median coverts, darker bases to the primaries forming a less distinct primary patch and a darker head.

Subadult

The second set of feathers is generally adult-like. Some feathers may show an immature aspect, but there are no real subadult plumages. However, the first primary moult proceeds slowly and during the second autumn migration many primaries are still juvenile and some of them still remain during the second spring migration. Therefore 3cy spring birds with very worn and pointed 1-3 outermost primaries can be aged - and it is easier still if there are also juvenile secondaries left. Steppe Buzzard adults moult part of their plumage in the breeding area and the rest on the wintering grounds and therefore there are typically feathers of different ages in adults too.

Distribution

Most of Europe, except the eastern part, where the conspecific Steppe Buzzard occurs. Largely resident, but northern birds move a comparatively short distance for the winter.

Geographical variation

The eastern subspecies Steppe Buzzard Buteo buteo vulpinus is treated in a separate account.

Life cycle

General

The typical and common buzzard of most of Europe. Very variable in colour and may be confusing because of that. Most individuals are darkish brown, with paler median coverts on the underwing, and a pale belt over the breast and pale internal areas on the wing feathers.

From greater distances, often difficult to separate from European Honey-buzzard (see the account of that species). Compared to darker eagles, for example the spotted eagles, the wings are narrower with five fingers (six in eagles), and remiges showing pale internal parts and dark tips (more uniform in eagles). The internal parts of the upper sides of the primaries are widely greyish (the spotted eagles show a more distinct whitish area at the bases of the primaries). Common Buzzards soar with wings raised to a shallow V (more flattish or even downturned outer wings in spotted eagles). Whitish birds often show very pale upperwing coverts and are then easy to recognise even from large distances having no real confusion species. Others may be confusable with Short-toed Eagle, but not really difficult to separate when seen well (the eagle showing broader wings and smaller tail, six fingers and different barring on the flight-feathers, but lacking dark carpal patches). Some Rough-legged Buzzards may be similar, see the account of that species.

Often inseparable from Steppe Buzzard, with which it intergrades extensively in Eastern Europe. The darkest birds are dark brown with indistinct breast belt (blackish brown with no breast belt in Steppe Buzzard). Only seldom very rufous, although some may show rufous on tail and even a rufous tone overall (most paler Steppes are variably rufous brown, but some are more mid-brown resembling typical Common, some Steppes are uniformly fox-red, a plumage type which does not occur in Common). Secondary barring broader on somewhat darker background (in Steppe, narrower with more white background). Some Commons have large whitish areas (no corresponding whitish plumage in Steppe).

Adult

Most birds dark brown with pale barring on upper breast forming an indistinct breast band. Blackish eyes (grey in first-years), broad darkish subterminal bands on flight feathers (narrower and less clear-cut in first years).

First-year

Somewhat slimmer wings and longer tail than in adults may cause confusion with other species, especially European Honey-buzzard. The plumage is uniformly worn, with all feathers of the same age. Underparts more streaked and less barred than in adults, but variable, and some individuals not very streaked. The dark trailing edge to the wings and tail is narrower and less clear-cut than in adults. On the upperparts, the secondaries are almost uniformly dark and contrast with the paler covert area (in adults, upperparts are more uniform, but the broad black trailing edge is still visible). Eyes pale grey (blackish in adults).

Subadult

The first moult commences at about one year of age. The new plumage is adult-like, but may still show some immature traits, such as streaky patterns on the underbody. Eyes are not yet blackish. Often the outermost primaries remain unmoulted and some secondaries are also still juvenile, being shorter and having a narrower black subterminal band.

Distribution

Breeds far north, from Scandinavia through northern Siberia and along the shores of the Okhota sea. Winters from Central Europe to Central Asia and northern China.

Geographical variation

The geographical variation is not large and single individuals are perhaps not often safely recognisable. The nominate breeds in Europe and Western Siberia, wintering in Europe and Central Asia. Menzbieri to the east of the nominate, wintering from Central Asia to the Pacific shores, is larger and paler, but the variation is clinal. Kamtschatkensis of Kamtchatka and the nearby mainland coast is still larger but darker.

Life cycle

General

Largish and palish buzzard. In all plumages, the base of the tail is mostly white with a black contrasting terminal band – this combination is unique and makes this species the easiest Buteo of the region to identify. The large white area on the tail is often visible even in a side view in flight. There are some white areas on the upperwing-coverts and the overall plumage tones are brown and colder buffish (more rufous and yellowish in Long-legged). Underwing coverts are variable, but mostly white, and the carpal patch is black and prominent. The inner primaries and secondaries are finely barred, and the barring is concentrated distally, especially in juveniles (more heavily barred, with a broader dark trailing edge in Common Buzzard; Long-legged and Steppe show fine barring, but more evenly across the length of the feather). Legs are feathered (as in Upland but unlike the other regional species). Soars with quite a deep V and hovers often. Quite largish and with longer, relatively narrower wings and longer tail than the smaller species (East Asian, Himalayan and Steppe Buzzard), but perhaps not identifiable by shape from Long-legged and Upland Buzzard.

Adult male

The most patterned plumage. The throat area is mostly blackish. The flank patches are barred but sometimes the patches are not clear-cut, because a lot of pale internal patterning. The underwing coverts are strongly patterned. There are several dark internal bars on the tail.

Adult female

Because of variation, sexing is not always possible, ageing is easier. Females are browner, less patterned than males, with paler underwing-coverts, more uniform dark belly patch and the throat is more variegated, streaked and overall paler than the belly patch. As a rule, there is one internal dark bar on the tail.

First-year

Large, uniform, brown patches on flanks. Underwing-coverts almost unpatterned whitish. The bases of the upper primaries form large greyish patches on upperwing. The dark trailing edge to the wing greyish, indistinct and narrow. The tail band is greyish and not very clear-cut, there may be internal bands, but they are greyish and less clear-cut. Grey iris, pupil easily visible.

Subadult

During the second year, iris colour is intermediate. By the second autumn migration the primary moult has not yet been completed with the outermost primaries still juvenile showing clear-cut pale internal areas visible on the upperwing. Some of the secondaries may still be juvenile feathers with less clear-cut black tips, and they are easier to detect. Sexing more difficult than in adults because of the intermediate plumage aspect.